2.
   2023
/  

(  )
: 3     :70
:    -    ,        
                
       
-
1.          
2.  -           
  
-
3.           ,
       
4.          ?      
,      
-
2.
5.               
      
6.        - 
-
7.    ,      
8.   '   :
(i)      
(ii)     
2.
   2023
/  

(  )
: 3     :70
:    -    ,        
                
       
-
1.          
:      
     ,         , ,
,        -  ,  
    ,    , ,    
          , ,   
          
   --  ,    
1.      
    ,     "" 
   ,    
  '     '   '      , 
              
                 
2.
    ()         
1839     ,    ,      
2.     (1849)
 -   ,     1849       
            :
   
     
   '  
       
,        
   ,   , ,   
          :
  
  (  )
  
    
  , ,     ,      -

3.    
            :
   (1919)
 
  ,  ,  ,         

     '    ,       :
,             
 
4.      (1947)
2.
          
 1947      ,     '  :
   (     )
    (    )
             
  :
  ' 
 
-  
 
             
 :





        ,        
            
5.     
1947  ,       
       ,
    :
 

  ( )
  
    ,       
 ,            
            
  
   
2.
6.   (1956)
1956 ,         :





         (  
  )      ,     
7.    
  ,        '      
     
    :
 (    )
 ( )
            ( )   
 ,  ,      ,    
  
8.    (1966)
           
1  1966 ,       :
(1) 
           
(2) 
         ,     
(3)    
2.
   :



      
  1971       
9.  
           :
  
  
          '       
      ,         
10.  
             '  :
 
 
 
     '  ,    :
"  "
"    "
       :


  
 
 ,  ,         
2.

               
            , 1947     
    1966    '   ,     
     , ,        
     ,    ,    
  
 
,        :
2.  -           
  
:
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼1.   (- )
:- ,       
:- ,  ,    ()
:   ,   
: ;      
2.
:            
    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔: ,            
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼2.   
:    ,   ,   
   
:     
:- ,  ,   
:
'  ; ,       
:      
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔: " "           
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼3.   (  )
()   ( )
:     
:     
:  ; , ,    -

:"  "    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔: ,      
 
()  
:    ,         
:      
:-    ;       
:    '  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔: , ,        
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼4. - /- 
:    ,  ,     
  
: ,   ,  - 
:  ' ; ,     
2.
:  ,     
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:            
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
             
             
     ,       
-      '     

󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘  
    :
  -
 
     
  ,   
-     
      
 ,  ,   
  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
                 
   - - ,   ,   
   
           
   "   "      

-
3.     ,      
     
:   ?
            ,  ,   
  '                , 
          '   ,      
2.
 ,      , , ,    
  ,         ,     
 
     -  
  
                 
  
;        " "    
            
   '             
    
       
;       
      
1.       
            
 ,  ,          
              
2.       
               
             
:
"  
,          ?"
3.     
    :
 
  
     
2.
 
                ,    
    
4.    
 ,              
:
"     "
"     "     '   
     ,      
5.    
              
, ,            

 
6.       
         :
"   =   "
     
   
     
;       
 
 
1.   
 
                 :
2.
    
   
    
    
            
2.  ,   
 :
 

 
 
   
     ,  ,    
   
 
3.  
     '  ,       '   '
            
 
1.  
            , , 
        ,     '   
 -   
2.     
       ,  :
      
2.
    
 
           
     


3.  
        :
 
 
  
          ,      
 
4.      
       "  ",        
    ,     
5.  
      
    ,  
           
      
    ,       ?
1.  
           
    
      :
 
2.

      
2.      
      ,         :
 
 
            
3.   
     :
    
  
       
4.    
          ,
 ,         
5.     
  ,            
     :
   
     
     

2.
          ,   ,    
           '  ,  
,             , 
     ,   ,      
   
4.          ?      
,      
:  : , ,   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
                  
     ,        "  "
   ,   
 ,         

      ,  
    
,          ,     
 '    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :   ,          
   ,      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
  
     ,       '    

1. 
 :     21°C  27°C
      
 
 ;     
 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      ,       
 
2. 
/ 
 75-150     
2.
  ,        
    
        (10-18 )
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔           '   
3. 
    , ,     
     

       
4.   
       
          
5. 
              
       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
 ,            
    
 
    : , , , , , 
     
            ,  
    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔          
      
   ,    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼      
1.   
               
            - 

 
2.  
    (-):   , 
    

 
2.
   (-):       
3.   
           
            '   
4.   
         '    
     -    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼      
   ,            :
1.     
   -   ()       
  '  
    
,     
2.      
              
       , 
      
3.      
       
              
4.  
           
 
     
5.     
            
  '     ,     
6.  
2.
    ,           
   
    -    
7.   
           
        
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼        
1.  :    -       
 
2.   :       
3.  :      
4.   : -  -     
5.   :      
6.  :  -       
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘  
               
  - , ,           ,  
              , 
     ,            
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
             , 
     '    ,     ,  
,               
   ,    ,     
   
-
5.               
      
:  -         
 
   ,       ,   
"   "          
   -
2.
,             ,  
,              
  ,        ,   
  ,          
     
  ,      ,     -   
      :
1. -     
                 
    
   :
         
   '   
   , ,       
-   -,          
    ,   ,  ,     
2.     
      
     '    
 :




 

       
    ,  ,
,                

3.      
2.
             :

 
  
 

            '
           ,   
    
4.    
      '       ,   
  ,            
      
5.       
      ,        
     '  ,       
             
6.     
            
          ,      
  
       
              ,
        
       ' 
  , ,     
     
 ?
2.
    :
      
  
 
    
    
     
1.  -    
                 
       ,     " 
"               
       
2. 
   '          ,
             ,  
          
3. 
               
     '         
4. , ,   
               
           
      
2.
              

   :

-


  

          
    
 ?
     :
   
    
   
  
  (, ,  )   
    
1.  -    
 "   "            
          :
     
      
, , ,       
    ,           , 
        
2. 
2.
      ,   ,     
    
        ,   
       
3.    
     ,          
         
 

          '  ,    
      
      -
,        ,      
   ,             
  
 
     ,        
 ,   ,         

       ,     ,  
  ,          ,    
'       
 
6.        - 
:-
,   "  -    "   ,    
    , -        
     -      

           '  
 -   
    ,         
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :             ,
,     -  
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
2.
1.  
         ,      
     
  ,     -   

2.   
         
 
         ,   
      
3.   
- :      
   
--- :  - 
- - :    
- :-     ,    
    '  
4.   
 :    ,      
 : ,  -  
  :   
 :  
   :    
5.     
  :   ,     
 -:, ,      -  
 -:        

󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:    ,             
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
1.  
2.
                
   
NH-1 ( NH-44):   ,      
NH-3:    
NH-54:    
NH-7:     ,       
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔          ,  ,    
   
2.     
   ,          
  
     
           
3.    
       ,       
 
 
--  ( )      
4.   
    ,         


        
 
   ,      
5.     
 :     ()    
 :          
      
 :    ,    
 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:    ,  -       
      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼      



2.

     
-    

     
   
 -
   
   

   
   
 
    

  

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  

    
     -  
-  '    

    
       
   -  
   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
:  , -   ,    
:,    ,    
:        
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:   --      ,
-    
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘  
  
      ,        
      ,      ,   
 
           ,       
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
                  
 , ,             
 ,   
      -     -
2.
      ,    , 
       
-
7.    ,      
:    ,   
 
   ,     ,     

               
   -      ,        
                 

--   -    ,       (),   
   
   
           '     
  - ,     ,          
           ,       
  - ,        
                
               
   :





 





2.
               ,    '

        
     '         ,
,        ' ,    , ,  
     
 ,   , 
  :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔 =      ,          
  ,        
    ( )
  
      ,         
         -   , , ,  
 
    '            
              ,  
 '      

,        
  -  
 :
1.   
   ,   ,     -, ,
      ,      '  
 
 
2. -   
- 
 , ,     -    ,
 -      , 
        
         ,   - -   
3.   
                 
:
  ,   '  45°C    
 ,     
2.
   ,   -  

    ,     '  
  
    
        
4.   
      ,       ,   
  - ,   :

 
 ()  
         
    :
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔   =    ,  -    -
  ,         
   
 
          "  
      "   , 
        
 
       
;     ,   
     
1.    
1960  1970            , 
, ,      ,      
           
2.  
       :

     ( )
    
          
2.
 ()
     ( )
   
     '    ,       
  '    

        ,    ,     
           ,     
 
    :



     
3. 

   
,           

     '   :
 
  
,       ,         
4.   
    :

  
 
   
                
       
5.   
            :
2.
     
        
           
      ' 
  

 ,      - ,         
  ,               
     ,  -    - 
      ,       ,   
              ,
    ,           

8.   '   :
(i)      
(ii)     
:           

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
  "  "    ,      
  
    -           - 
       
       
,               
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :     '   ,      
      ,       
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼(i)      
1.   
         ,  ,  
     
"  "   ,        ,   
   
     
 
2.
2.  
       ,    ,    
   
     - ,     
         
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:          4-5    ,   
        
 
3.  
     
   ,          
, ,   
         

4.    
 ( )          
       
            
 
5.  
        ,      
       
 ,   ,       
  
6.     
     
 
--        
        
    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  ,         ,   
     
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼(ii)     
1.   
2.
         ,  , ,
   (   )     
       ,     '  
()            
2.    
()    ()
         
 , ,        
  ,        
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔:            
   
()  
  ,          
   
          
()    ()
          
         
() - 
 ,  ,      
       
(e) ...- 
     ,         
            
3.     
 :      
 :     
:             
 :         
4.  
2.
     
 
 ,     
 
       
 
5.     
    
    
      
       
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔   ,        ,  
    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
        (    ) 
  
              
  ,        -    
    ,     
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘  
    :
-    ,  ,       
  ,  
    
    ,  
 
         -
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
          ,  -
   ,           

   ,    ,      
 
 
"              
 
       ,       
 "